Food Insight
September/October 2007 

Back in the "good old days," people kneaded dough for bread and preserved summer fruits and vegetables to eat over the winter. But in the 20th century our world changed rapidly and so did our methods of food preparation. Today the major portion of our family’s food needs comes from processed food products that add variety to our diets and convenience to our busy lives. Processed foods also have a fascinating history that is tied to our culture and to important historical events.

Humans have been processing foods—preserving them for future use and to insure their safety—for centuries. In fact historians trace the origins of food processing back to the ancient Egyptians who knew how to use the fermentation action of yeast to bake bread and brew beer. Our ancestors used salt to preserve meats and fish, preserved fruit with sugar, and pickled cucumbers in a vinegar solution.

Landmarks in Food Processing

Canned foods as we know them today have their origin in the late 1700’s as Napoleon’s troops faced a serious food shortage. The French government offered a substantial prize to anyone who could develop a means of preserving food to keep the army supplied while on the march. Nichols Appert, a confectioner, theorized that putting fresh foods in airtight containers and heating them, would preserve the foods inside. After years of experimentation he submitted his invention and won the prize in 1809. While Appert may not have understood that his process depended on sterilization to kill bacteria, his canning process is directly responsible for the multitude of prepared foods on our grocery shelves today.

It was almost 100 years later that Clarence Birdseye, working as a field naturalist in Labrador, noticed how easily food was preserved in the arctic climate, and later developed a commercially viable quick-freezing process. Although the concept of frozen foods was not new, Birdseye said, "Perhaps my basic contribution was the idea that a wide line of perishable foods—meats, poultry, seafood, fruits, and vegetables—could be dressed ready to cook, conveniently packaged, really quick frozen, and then delivered to housewives while still truly fresh."

Technology Expands Choices

Technological advances accelerated in the 20th century with innovations such as juice concentrates, freeze drying, preservatives, and nonnutritive sweeteners. Space travel and changing lifestyles spurred these and other advances, but know-how alone was not enough to bring about the transformation of our food supply into the rich variety of products found in today’s supermarket. Consumers needed some assurance that new processes and additives resulted in safe foods. Early in the 20th century a group of dedicated government scientists began their pioneering work in food safety and consumer protection. Led by Dr. Harvey Wiley, chief chemist of the Agriculture Department’s Bureau of Chemistry, they set out to test food additives for safety and to determine safe consumption levels.

The new art of chemistry that had produced pasteurization and other beneficial developments also made it possible for some manufacturers to engage in novel forms of cheating. In the absence of regulations, these manufacturers promoted and sold untested chemicals as food preservatives, added brown food coloring to glucose to produce a cheap but inauthentic "honey," and engaged in other deceptive and possibly dangerous practices. In 1902 Wiley organized a group of volunteers known as the "Poison Squad," who tested the effects of chemicals and adulterated foods on themselves. Wiley’s efforts resulted in the 1906 passage of the Pure Food and Drugs Act, prohibiting interstate commerce in misbranded and adulterated foods, drinks, and drugs. Through reorganization and name changes the Bureau of Chemistry evolved into the Food and Drug Administration (FDA), with the major responsibility for our nation’s food and drug regulatory activities.

Congress continued to expand FDA’s regulatory authority with the Federal Food, Drug and Cosmetic Act of 1938. In another landmark development, the 1958 Food Additives Amendment required that manufacturers of new food additives establish their safety before they are allowed in the market. Today’s governmental food safety network encompasses a variety of agencies in addition to FDA, including the Department of Agriculture (meat and poultry products), Environmental Protection Agency (pesticides), Department of Commerce (seafood), Federal Trade Commission (food advertising), and most recently, the Office of Homeland Security (border security and transportation).

Too Much of a Good Thing?

The US food supply is the most varied and abundant in the world. Yet processed foods sometimes are criticized for being "too processed," a complaint that ignores the many consumer benefits that these products provide.

Numerous studies show that processed foods are as nutritious or in some cases more nutritious than their unprocessed counterparts. Frozen vegetables retain their high vitamin and mineral content because they are processed within hours of harvest. For fresh vegetables, however, the time needed for picking and transporting usually translates into days or weeks before they reach the dinner table, resulting in a gradual loss of nutrients over time.

Food safety is enhanced by processing methods designed to rid foods of harmful bacteria that can cause illness. Heat treatments such as pasteurization rid juice and milk of organisms such as E. coli and Salmonella. Cooking and other heat treatments also make foods shelf-stable (not needing refrigeration before opening) by destroying organisms that cause spoilage.

Processing can also improve nutrition by making some nutrients more available. For example, cooking and canning tomatoes to make tomato paste or sauce increases the amount of lycopene that is available to the body.

The basic purpose behind processing food is not only to make it safe to eat at a later date, but also to look, taste, and smell as enticing as possible. Rather than diminishing our diets, processed foods actually facilitate the selection of a balanced diet, as they enable consumers to shop less frequently and to stock a wide range of foods on which to base varied and nutritious meals.

Food Spin-offs from Space

Some of today’s familiar food technologies have their origins in the US space program that began in the early 1960s. The need for astronauts to prepare food easily and safely led to many Earth-bound innovations in food processing. Of particular importance is the development by the National Aeronautics and Space Administration (NASA) of the Hazard Analysis Critical Control Point (HACCP) concept which addressed the need for freedom from potential disease-producing bacteria and toxins. HACCP focuses on preventing food safety problems through a science-based, seven-step system that maintains control over the entire food preparation process. Current US food safety regulations require the use of HACCP principles by all meat, poultry, seafood, and juice processors.

Other technologies originally developed for space foods that have found their way into the supermarket include: rehydratable food (soups, casseroles, cereals); thermostabilized (heat processed) foods in cans or retortable pouches; and irradiated meat.

Food for the Future

One of the most significant issues that is driving new food product development today is the heightened consumer interest in the relationship between eating and health. The term "functional foods" has entered our vocabulary to describe foods and food components that provide specific health benefits beyond basic nutrition. Functional foods can be unprocessed fruits, vegetables, or grain products, but the term also applies to an array of newer processed foods that utilize innovative technologies. Examples include orange juice fortified with calcium, pasta fortified with omega-3 fatty acids, and the development of spreads and salad dressings containing plant sterol and stanol esters that have been shown to reduce cholesterol.

Processed foods are an important part of our past and it appears they are poised to play a significant role in our future as well.